Managerial work has been researched through a number of studies using Essay

Managerial work has been researched through a number of studies using a wide range of methods over the last four to five decades - Essay Example 90-112). They are key personalities whose effectiveness and proficiency provide congruence to expected practices and performance (Hales, 1986, pp. 90-112). They lead and define the behaviour and activities of an organisation to make it truly functional and fully attuned to the standard of quality performance (Hales, 1986, pp. 90-112). Managers will also ensure that all departments are working systematically and that human resources correlate as a disciplined team in accordance with organisational policies (Hales, 1986, pp. 90-112). Managers are constantly engaged in critical analysis to read trends, opportunities, methodologies, and determine the proper mechanism in responding to political, economic, social, technological, logistical, and environmental aspects in nurturing an organisation (Hales, 1986, pp. 90-112). ... iffer in their system of communications and try to be pliant with circumstances to be able to clearly interpret the implementation of corporate policies and internal systems (Hales, 1986, pp. 90-112). Managers that are deeply concerned with operations are performance-oriented in their supervision and are surrounded by a number of diverse managerial responsibilities (Hales, 2005, pp. 472-502). Some may practise a hierarchical system of direct supervision, individual managerial responsibility, and vertical accountability (Hales, 2005, pp. 472-502). But their operations are, however, con?ned to operational and human resource strategising (Hales, 2005, pp. 472-502). They maintain personal accountability in day-to-day operational flow and act using standard performance measures (Hales, 2005, pp. 472-502). They exercise responsibilities and authority to strengthen their core supervision and broaden their role in business management (Hales, 2005, pp. 472-502). They exemplify decisive change s as a result of necessary radical organisational change but they possess continued credible and wilful persistence of hierarchy and external supervision to manifest transformational system (Hales, 2005, pp. 472-502). They also work to strengthen their supervision by adopting stringent controls to attain growth in business operation with a greater range of accountability (Hales, 2005, pp. 472-502). Managers are also responsible for designating work; monitoring output and conduct; overseeing the functionality of equipment, safety and cleanliness of a company; dealing with unforeseen problems pertaining to staf?ng; managing disputes; providing counselling; monitoring documentations as well as providing supervision in operational aspects (Hales, 2005, pp. 472-502). They perform administrative

Housing Issues and Solutions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Housing Issues and Solutions - Essay Example The result of this practice has contributed to significant suffering amongst the residents of the Riverslake estate due to the housing issues facing the organization. The rent not collected in time has been becoming a major source of problem for Riverslake in keeping financial resources in place. There are complains that tenants are scared to go out at night because the resident kids have been seen to hang around often. A number of viable solutions to these issues can be established with a collaborative effort from both the management and the residents. Some of the solutions to these issues are discussed in the report. Among the solutions discussed, this report recommends that the participation of residents or tenants in the decision making process of the estate would be a major step in reaching the height of the solutions to all evident housing issues. Some key suggestions regarding the obligation of the housing professionals include the need for training as well as providing educat ion concerning the management of residents and income collection on regular basis. Through, well-structure mutual coordination and collaboration, the housing issues faced by the Riverslake Association can be resolved properly. The paper concludes with the best practices that the property owners have current adopted in the maintenance of maintaining the estate, disrepairs and for resolving the troubles of residents. Thus the best course of action is to have the housing management listen to the tenants regarding the problems they often face.

Contract of a Mortgage

Contract of a Mortgage Introduction A mortgage is a contract between two parties whereby the mortgagor uses his land as security for a loan from the mortgagee. In return for the creation of a proprietary interest in the land for the mortgagee, the mortgagor receives a loan and based on the terms of the mortgage has to pay the full sum owed. In the event that the mortgagor defaults on payment, the mortgagee is entitled to take possession of the mortgaged property and recover the full sum owed by the mortgagor usually through the sale of the property and by suing on the covenant to pay the full sum due. Jack and Margaret entered into a mortgage contract with Reading Bank whereby their matrimonial home was used as security for the loan. As Jack has fallen into arrears with regard to the mortgage payments, Reading Bank is now seeking to recover the full sum due under the mortgage. Mortgagees Rights The mortgagor essentially has the cumulative rights[1] to sue the mortgagor on the covenant to repay based on the mortgage contract[2], to take possession of the mortgaged property, to initiate and complete sale of the mortgaged property, to exercise foreclosure and to appoint a receiver. In this task we are only concerned with the mortgagors right to possession as Margaret and Jack are resisting possession. By virtue of the way in which legal mortgages are created, the mortgagee is regarded as having an estate in land and this along with the authority of Four Maids v. Dudley Marshall[3] and Ropaigelach v Barclays Bank[4] gives Reading Bank the immediate right to possession the moment the ink is dry on the mortgage.[5] The right to take possession is subject only to self limitation as expressed in contract and statutory restrictions. Mortgage documents generally contain a covenant that would restrict the mortgagee from taking possession unless the mortgagor is in arrears, it appears that an argument for self limitation covenants would fail. With regard to statutory restrictions on the right of possession a mortgagor, protection for the mortgagor is afforded by section 36 of the Administration of Justice Act 1970 (AJA) as amended by Section 8 of the AJA 1973. By virtue of section 36 of the AJA the court is granted a discretionary power to suspend, adjourn or postpone an application for possession of a dwelling house by the mortgagee if it appears that the mortgagor would be likely in a reasonable period of time to pay any sums due under the mortgage. Whether or not Margaret and Jack can resist possession by virtue of section 36 would depend on whether or not they satisfy the limitations of the effect of the statute. There is no dispute as to whether the mortgaged house in question is a dwelling house however the facts of the case seem to indicate that as Reading bank did not apply for a court order[6] and instead sought self help[7] as the bank merely wrote to J ack and Margaret. It should be noted that when seeking self help possession Reading Bank runs the risk of committing criminal offences if there should be any person lawfully residing on the premises at the time as they are subject to Section 6 (1) of the Criminal Law Act 1977 (if violence was used or had been threatened to be used). However the facts are silent, if Reading Bank did in fact apply for a court order Margaret and Jack will be able to rely on section 36 of the AJA and they would have to prove on the balance of probabilities that it is likely that the arrears will be cleared within a reasonable period[8] in order to satisfy the court. Application of section 36 is not necessarily a negative outcome as mortgagees do not want possession or the expense of a sale. A possession order under section 36 gives the mortgagee all it could ask for: an order for possession, albeit suspended and an order requiring the borrower to repay the arrears and to stick to a schedule for future p ayments.[9] The discretion as to whether to apply for a court order or not is left to Reading Bank. Undue Influence As a mortgage is essentially a contract and the presence of any vitiating factors such as undue influence or misrepresentation may make the entire agreement void and thus unenforceable. The court of appeal in Bank of Credit and Commerce International S.A. v. Aboody[10] set out the categorization of cases undue influence into either class 1 of actual undue influence whereby one party to the transaction can prove on the facts that the other party to the transaction exerted undue influence through an act openly carried out amounting to improper pressure. And class 2 of presumed undue influence[11] which arises when the complainant is able to establish the existence of a relationship of trust and confidence between her and the wrongdoer of such a nature that it is fair to presume that the wrongdoer abused the relationship in procuring her agreement to enter into the impugned transaction[12] In order to resist possession Margaret would most likely attempt to argue that undue influence had in fact been exercised. The burden of proof for undue influence lies on the claimant throughout[13]. Margaret would have to prove undue influence, either actually or with the benefit of an evidential inference (a presumption), which remains un-rebutted. As class 1 cannot succeed the burden of proof would be on Margaret to rely on class 2 in that of the presumption of undue influence. Royal Bank of Scotland v Etridge (No.2)[14] indicates that in order to discharge the burden of proof, the victim has to show that there was a relationship of trust and confidence with the alleged wrongdoer and that there exists a transaction that calls for an explanation.[15] Applying the requirements of Etridge (no.2) for class 2 presumed undue influence to the facts of the case, it would be necessary for Margaret to prove that there existed a close relationship of habitual trust and confidence between and Jack (the alleged wrongdoer) and herself. On the facts it appears that Margaret reposed trust an d confidence'[16] in Jack, the fact that for a great many years Margaret was a housewife raising five children seems to indicate that Jack would be left alone to manage the financial decisions of the household as well as the company. On the assumption that Jack was in fact in control of the financial decisions it would appear that he would have a sufficient position of power to abuse his influence over Margaret as is evidenced by his actions of persistently pressuring[17] her into signing the mortgage despite her obvious reluctance to re-mortgage the house which clearly indicates a betrayal of trust by seeking to fulfil his own interests.[18] When considering the transaction that calls for explanation it is submitted that it would be left to the discretion of the courts, the judgment could go either way. On one hand it can be argued the transaction is plainly disadvantageous to Margaret as she undertakes a serious financial obligation, and in return she personally receives nothing. On the other hand it can be argued that Jacks business is the primary source of the family income and Margaret would mutually benefit from having a lively interest in doing what she can to support the business. However the facts point out that Margaret was reluctant to agree to the transaction and only did so at a point where she was physically exhausted and sick of quarrelling. Jack had also misrepresented Margaret with regard to the actual sum that was to be borrowed, the amount was represented as  £300,000 where else it was in fact for  £500,000. It is submitted that in light of this it the courts would most likely infer that there was undue influence as the transaction will only be explicable on the basis that it has been procured by the exercise of undue influence by Jack. If the courts infer that Margarets consent has in fact been procured by undue influence or misrepresentation, the bank may not rely on her apparent consent unless it has good reason to believe that she un derstands the nature and effect of the transaction. The burden of proof will be on the bank to rebut the presumption of undue influence. The Bank can rebut the presumption by producing an explanation for the impugned transaction[19]. Lord Nicholls in Etridge (no.2)[20] indicates that this can be done if Reading Bank can show that Margaret obtained independent advice from a solicitor or outside advisor[21]. In this case, the facts are silent as to whether or not Margaret obtained any independent advice. In the event that the Margaret has obtained independent advice it would be in the courts discretion as to whether or not the presumption can be rebutted. However if Margaret did not obtain independent advice it is submitted that the courts will most likely infer that undue influence had been exerted on Margaret by Jack tainting her consent with regard to the impugned transaction. If the courts in their discretion infer that undue influence had in fact been exerted then the onus of dis charging the burden will be placed on Reading Bank. The judgment of Lord Browne-Wilkinson in Barclays Bank v OBrien[22] appears to indicate that the wife would only be able to set aside the transaction on the grounds of undue influence if the third party had actual notice of the facts giving rise to her equity. The decision in Etridge (No.2)[23] indicates that the courts will only deem the mortgagee to have notice of undue influence in every transaction where the surety and debtor are in a non-commercial relationship and the loan made was not for the mutual benefit of both parties but instead for the sole purpose of one. Applying the principles to the facts of the case at hand, Margaret and Jack are in a domestic relationship and Margaret is also listed as a director of the company. As aforementioned the courts will only be able to set aside the mortgage on the grounds of undue influence if the Bank had actual notice of the facts giving rise to Margarets equity. The case of CIBC mor tgages v Pitt illustrates a situation whereby the bank was misled by the mortgagor to believe that the loan was to purchase a holiday home, as it was for the mutual benefit of the couple the Bank was not put on inquiry. Jack sought the mortgage in order to expand his business and as aforementioned an argument for manifest disadvantage could go either way. Reading bank may argue that as Margaret was a listed director of the company they could apply CIBC v Pitt whereby the mortgagee was not put on notice as it was for their mutual benefit. However on the other side of the coin Lord Nicholls in Etridge (No.2) stated: In my view the bank is put on inquiry in such cases, even when the wife is a director or secretary of the company.[24] This suggests that the fact that Margaret is a listed director on her husbands company should not thwart Reading Bank from being put on inquiry. The argument for manifest disadvantage could go either way as Margaret has never played an active part in her h usbands business and instead was busy raising her five kids and subsequently working as a nurse. There seems to be no way by which the bank can avoid being put on notice to discharge their obligations to prevent the transaction from becoming impugned. In order to avoid rendering the mortgage void due to undue influence Reading Bank is advised to meet with the vulnerable party privately where by the extent and risks involved in the mortgage should be explained after which the vulnerable party should be instructed to seek independent legal advice in order to obtain a confirmation letter. A confirmation letter from Margarets solicitors acts as proof that Reading Bank has fulfilled their obligations and responsibilities in ensuring that the vulnerable party has obtain independent advise. Proceeding with the mortgage after a solicitors confirmation letter has been obtained will make the mortgage virtually unaffected by any future pleas for undue influence. The facts of the case are silen t as to whether or not Reading Bank has carried out its responsibilities in that of meeting Margaret privately and instructing her to seek independent legal advice to obtain a confirmation letter. In the event that a confirmation letter had been sought any plea for undue influence would be ignored and the Reading Banks rights would be unhindered. However if Reading Bank had failed to discharge their responsibilities and the courts inferred that undue influence had been procured onto Margaret then Reading Bank would not be entitled to possession as the mortgage would only be exercisable upon Jack. This would result in Reading Bank having to seek other remedies to realize the loan such as suing on the covenant to pay. Conclusion It appears that a plea for undue influence would most likely succeed as Reading Bank has failed to discharge its duties and obligations such as ordering a private meeting and advising Margaret to seek independent legal advice. However the facts are silent, If Reading Bank failed to discharge their duties, the mortgage agreement would be deemed unenforceable[25] on Margaret however Reading Bank would still be able to sue Jack on the covenant to repay based on the mortgage contract[26]. If Reading Bank did in fact discharge their duties and obligations they would be able to set aside the presumption of undue influence. This would allow Reading Bank to exercise its rights under the mortgage such as right to possession, right to sale, right to appoint a receiver, right to foreclosure and right to sue on the covenant to repay. With regard to right to possession Reading Bank would have the discretion as to whether to use apply for a court order or not as aforementioned the invocation of se ction 36 of the AJA is not necessarily a negative outcome, it all depends on what Reading bank really wants.

Black Uhuru :: Essays Papers

Black Uhuru Black Uhuru emerged at the perfect and ideal moment when Jamaica was faced with turmoil, confusions and difficulties. Throughout the late 1970's the country and its people were being faced with outside imperialist threats, political violence, a teetering and unstable economy, covert United States intervention and an angry, politicized youth. Reggae music no longer reflected change and was in need of its own uprising. Black Uhuru was seen through some eyes as the saving grace of this desperate time. The band was originally formed by Derrick"Duckie"Simpson, Don Carlos and Garth Dennis in 1971, and like almost all the front-rank Jamaican groups Black Uhuru proclaims a Rastafarian faith that has been crucial in shaping its music and its message. The religion's core belief is that Haile Selassie, emperor of Ethiopia from 1930 until a year before his death in 1975 was"a divine being, the Messiah, and the champion of the black race." Carlos left the group for a solo career and Dennis left to perform as a member of the successful roots group, Wailing Souls. Simpson remained to what seemed like one of many secondgeneration, Rasta-inspired vocal groups until he was drawn to the powerful and magical voice of Michael Rose. Shortly after Simpson and Rose began recording, they heard the ethereal voice of South Carolina-born, Columbia-graduate and Rasta sister, Sandra"Puma"Jones. It wasn't until Sly Dunbar and Robbie Shakespeare graced the stage along side the trio that they became the Black Uhuru that most are familiar with. Their music combined a deep spirituality, edgy political anger and rhythm driven by the superstar combo of Sly Dunbar and Robbie Shakespeare. The internationally renowned musicians and record producers Sly Dunbar now 46, and Robbie Shakespeare, 45, were both born in Kingston, Jamaica. They started their individual careers as session musicians for local reggae acts, Sly as a drummer and Robbie as a base guitarist. In an interview Sly recalls how he come to know Robbie,"Robbie and I were both playing at different clubs in the same street in downtown Kingston. He was playing at Evil People and I was playing three doors down at Tit for Tat. Our breaks were at different times, and each of us would go to the other club during break and listen to the other band playing. The first time I saw Robbie playing bass I asked"Who's that?"He just seemed so relaxed. We got talking and we would just stand and talk about music for hours.

Descartes †Meditations on First Philosophy Essay

â€Å"Give a detailed account of Descartes’ systematic doubt or methodical doubt in Meditation 1, making it certain that you distinguish between real doubts and so called hypothetical/metaphysical doubts. Then, explain in detail, exactly how Descartes dispels each and every one of these doubts during the course of the subsequent Meditations beginning with the cogito. Do you think that Descartes has been completely successful? Explain.†The main goal of Descartes in Meditations on First Philosophy was to find truth behind all of his beliefs in order to build a solid foundation of certainty, and to focus his beliefs strictly on his idea of certainty; essentially to question knowledge. Descartes beliefs are mainly based on the theory that, if someone thinks that they really know something, they must be correct. Descartes meditations bring about 3 key issues that are discussed throughout the entire book; the existence of him being a thinking thing, God as a supreme being and being deceived by the Evil Genius, as well as the idea that the body is an extension of the mind. Descartes provides a solid argument throughout the entire book, calling into question every aspect of what I is, and the world around him. Descartes is trying to decipher whether or not he, anybody or anything in fact is real and he also goes on to argue that our knowledge is gained via our everyday experiences. Through examining each meditation, discussing the cogito, as well as what he discusses in terms of his senses and the external world, the dream hypothesis and his evil genius theory; I will conclude that in fact he does exist, knowledge exists, and God exists. There are two real doubts in which Descartes talks about throughout the meditations. The first being the senses and external world in which he believes causes one to doubt. He claims that in order for him to believe that of his senses he must acquire complete certainty, and he says that we should ask ourselves whether perception is really a legitimate means for attaining knowledge, can we trust our senses? If not, what grounds do we have to deny? Descartes claims that at times the senses can become deceiving under certain circumstances. He says that certain lighting, distance and even depth perception can cause one to conclude incorrectly with regards to their senses. With this in mind, he introduces the lunatic hypothesis. He believes that he can doubt his senses even if the external conditions are  perfect as long as the internal conditions are not. The idea of common sense realism is also established which is the idea that truth come from the senses and the way that they appear. Common sense says that the only way to know the body is through the mind because it is visible and touchable. Descartes then dismisses the idea because he says he would not be able to perceive with his meditations if he were to deem this belief as being true. The second real doubt that Descartes brings to our attention is the dream hypothesis. This is the idea that sleeping and reality cause one to doubt. Descartes says that everyone is prone to dream and that if he is dreaming, everything he thinks he is experiencing is in fact false. This doubt then goes from a real doubt to a metaphysical doubt. He asks, if I am dreaming, is there anything that is true, reliable and certain? If not, then everything must be an illusion. He says that we sense while we are sleeping therefore when we are awake, or what we believe to be awake, how do we know that we are not actually asleep? He says †¦let us assume that we are sleeping and these particulars are not true; that were opening our eyes; moving our head, and extending our hands (pg 60). He claims that if in fact we were dreaming these issues they must be true because in order to dream something, one must have had to experience it at some point. Therefore we must acknowledge that things seen in our dreams are painted images which must be true and exist. The idea of the Evil Genius is a metaphysical doubt, logically speaking. In this sense, God is perfect, and would never allow deception and error to take place because they are imperfect and God consists only of perfect qualities. God would not allow one to be deceived because he is supremely good, therefore deception and error must be a result of another source. He says that if his origin is from something other than God, he could have easily created him so that he makes mistakes and until he finds his origin doubt is going to occue. Descartes supposes that God is just a tale so he says let us just fraction him out of the equation entirely. Descartes decides that he is just going to doubt everything based on two principles. The first being that everything should be doubted at some point by those who seek the truth and the second being that things that are considered doubtful  should be treated as if they are false. With that in mind he concludes that he does exist even against all doubts because the Evil Genius can never say that Descartes is non-existent because he thinks he is something therefore he must be. I think, therefore I am. In meditation one Descartes starts off talking about the foundations of his beliefs in order to gain better knowledge on the grounds of certainty. He says that any sort of knowledge he has previously to the meditations he received through his senses and that they can at times be deceptive. What grounds do we have to deny the idea that knowledge comes from the senses. Descartes claims that because we sense while we are dreaming, there is really no way of determining whether or not we are awake or asleep. What we perceive through the senses could have be obtained during slumber and we would be none the wiser. He says that I extend this hand consciously and deliberately, and I feel it (pg 60). He argues that if he were in fact sleeping while doing so, it would not have been so clear and distinct. He uses the example that what we dream of are like painted images. For instance, he uses the example of an artist creating a siren or a hippogriff, they combine parts of other animals or something that we have never seen before to make it even though it is false. However Descartes goes on to argue that what her perceives through the sense could in fact be false, but since other things that are simple and universal are true, what is to say that we cannot trust our senses. He states..it is not improper to conclude from this that physics, astronomy, medicine, and all other disciplines that are dependent upon the consideration of composite things are doubtful and that on the other hand, arithmetic and geometry, which are simple and general and indifferent as to whether these things do or do not exists, contain certainty†¦ (pg 61). Descartes believes that it is completely impossible that these obvious truths are all under suspicion for being false. Going back to the argument regarding whether or not God exists he claims that the idea of God has been inside him forever and it must have been put in him by his creator. He begins to question if he is a deceiver or not, God is said to be supremely good so it must be something else, something foreign that allows him to be  deceived since deception is an imperfection and God does not contain any imperfections. Thus the idea of the evil genius is born, the idea that this clever and deceitful being is dedicating every bit of energy into deceiving and misleading him. By creating this theory, Descartes now believes that all of his former opinions and views are false and he continues on with his meditations. In the second meditation, Descartes is trying to determine what truth is, and what is not. He claims that he feels as though he is lost at in a sea of knowledge and he cannot keep his head afloat. His main goal throughout this meditation is to find something that is certain and absolutely unshakable. He believes that if nothing in his mind exists and it is only deceitful, what is true, maybe nothing is. Descartes says is there not some God who puts theses thoughts in my head? I could be the creator. Am I not something? Am I so tied to a body and senses that I cannot exist without them? (pg 63) He believes that the deceiver can never bring about that he does not exist because as long as he thinks that he is in existence, then he must be. This is where the Cogito comes into play, the idea that whatever thinks, I think therefore I am. With that in mind, Descartes spends the next little bit trying to find what I is. He says that he has a face, hands and arms in which he refers to as his body and that surely sensing does not take place without the body to feel, touch, smell, taste etc. Descartes also argues that thought does exist and it cannot be separated from him, he believes I am, therefore I exist, and as long as I continue to think I will continue to exist. If he ceases to think, he then ceases to exist. He says that he is †¦nothing but a thinking thing; a mind, or intellect, or understanding, or reason†¦ and that †¦knowledge or I does not depend on things of whose existence we have zero knowledge (pg 65). In other words, he means that knowledge, or I does not depend on things of which we have no knowledge of. He even says that corpeal things [images formed by thought and which the senses themselves examine]; are more clearly and distinctively known to the I. He believes the mind is prone to error and that one must try to differentiate between perceiving through the mind as opposed through vision. Descartes then introduces us to the example of wax. He says that  although it has melted, and that the shape, smell, taste and everything else that he once witnessed no longer exist, the wax is still the same wax and it is the essence that has not changed. He claims that he knows wax not through what he saw but through the inspection of the mind alone. He states that what he thought he saw in terms of the wax was really only a result of his judgement, which is a part of his mind. He claims what when he first saw it, it was perceived through an external sense or common sense and that it cannot be perceived without human mind. If I judge that the wax exists from the fact that I see it, certainly from this same face that I see the wax, is more evidence that I must exist (pg 69). He believes that since he knows our bodies are not professed through senses or imaginations but rather from the mind and intellect; he now knows that nothing can be perceived more easily and readily then his mind. He is basically saying that the senses provide us with observable traits about a subject whereas the mind and intellect give us understanding; his main point is that our perception is nothing but judgement. The third meditation brings up the idea of the Cogito again. He cannot be doubted when he says, I think therefore I am, and that the ideas in which he has are real. Descartes says that †¦there can never be more objective reality produced then formal reality because it is impossible to create something out of nothing (pg 70). He says that he has an idea of what a perfect or infinite substance is and that is God, and since everything he perceives clearly and distinctively is true, then God must be perfect and infinite. Because I have no reason for thinking that there is a God who is a deceiver, the basis for doubting, depending as it does merely on the above hypotheses [whether God exists or not], is tenuous or metaphysical (pg 71). He says that the certainty of the belief of the cogito lies in his clear and distinct perception; saying, thinking, and believing it make it true. Then he asks, what if something clear and distinct turned out to be false, but he quickly answers by claiming that he would not have known because he has already accepted it as being true. Descartes then begins to talk about his thoughts and puts them into three classifications: ideas (images of objects), volitions or emotions (adding  something to ideas), and judgements (either affirm or deny). He claims that there are three different kinds of ideas out there; innate ideas which are ideas that are born into a person and exist as long as the mind exists in which every mature rational being would have these. The next would be adventitious ideas which are acquired through sensations, he says these are ideas that are gained again his will for example hearing a noise or feeling heat. The final type of idea Descartes believes exists is fictitious or fabricated ideas which are ideas that are invented by the imagination. These ideas cannot be trusted and it is in this sense that one must learn to separate mind from imagination. The mind perceives through the senses; and sense perception does not occur without the body, therefore the body must exist. Descartes uses an example of the sun, which he says arises from two different ideas, one which comes from the senses [derived from outside of him] and one which arises from astronomy or innate ideas. Through that notion the sun is known to be a large ball of fire, but through the senses the sun is perceived as being rather small and bright. He says that †¦if we assume that something is found in the idea that was not in its cause, then it results from nothing (pg 75). For example he uses the idea of hot and cold. He says that cold could be a privation of heat and vice versa but since ideas can only be of real things, the idea that cold is determined as a result of the absence of warmth, the idea of cold as something real is not true. In sum, the perception of what is infinite was placed in my mind previous to the idea of finite substance, that is that what he believes God to be came before his idea of himself because God is infinite and you cannot add to perfection. Descartes said that he now knows that he depends on another being for existence and that he gained his idea of God not from his senses or unexpectedly but from his innate or natural ideas. He concludes that it would be impossible to exist unless God did exists because: †¦it is manifest by the light of nature that all fraud and deception depend on some defect (pg 80). In meditation Four Descartes is trying to clarify why God is no deceiver. The main question that needs explanation is if God is no deceiver then why and  how do we make mistakes? He believes that all men are prone to make mistakes because like God, our wills are never-ending but our intellect and understanding unfortunately is not. Our mind only allows us to observe things clearly and distinctly which is how we know that they are true. He says when I take note of the fact that I doubt or that I am a thing that is incomplete and dependent there comes to mind a clear and distinct idea of a being that is independent and complete, that is the idea of God (pg 81). Descartes believes that it is possible; if we use our ability properly we will not agree with false judgments. He says I note that these errors depend on the simultaneous concurrence of two causes: the faculty of knowing that is in me and the faculty of choosing, that is the free choice of will, in other words, simultaneously on the intellect and will. Through the intellect alone, I merely perceive ideas about which I can render a judgement (pg 83). God has created us in a way that if we perceive things in a clear and distinct our, way of thinking will not be incorrect. In the fifth meditation, Descartes is basically trying to examine the essence of tangible things. Since Descartes proved that we gain our beliefs and understanding through ideas, he is able to prove that God exists. He then uses the example of a triangle by saying that if God does not exist then a triangle does not have three sides. Since God is believed to be a supremely perfect being, there is no way that he would deceive because then that would conclude that he lacks some perfection. Descartes then attempts to explain the separation between mind and imagination. At this point doubt again gets the best of him and he must try to look beyond the unreliability of the senses. Descartes goes on to say that what I believe must be considered above all here is the fact that I find within me countless ideas of certain things, that, even if perhaps they do not exist anywhere outside me, still cannot be said to be nothing (pg 88). He believes that our knowledge of material things is based on our belief that God exists. I cannot think of God as not existing no more than I can think of a mountain without a valley, nevertheless it surely does not follow from the fact that I think of a mountain without a valley that a mountain exists in the world (pg 89). Material things must be real because God does not deceive. In meditation six Descartes is trying to prove once and for all if material things exist. Descartes then reflects all of the previous meditations to figure it out. He believes that material things can and do exist and that it is through our understanding that this is proven. He says that his senses perceive his body, therefore he must have one. assumes to have a body based on what his senses perceive. He begins to explore this notion that he had previously dismissed to doubt. He inquires whether his senses give him reason for bodies to exist. He says that God has given us a great inclination to believe that these ideas proceeded from corporeal things† (pg 94). Descartes thinks that it is from life that we differentiate other bodies and their explanation. He believes entirely that the mind is a thinking, un-extended thing, but the body is a physical and extended thing because the body can be separated. Descartes then dismisses the dream hypothesis because he realizes that being awake is a part of both the mind and body. He proves that our essence is of the mind and is a lot more known to us than the body. Throughout all the meditations Descartes constantly re-examines each belief and attempts to find the grounds of absolute certainty. It is through the dream hypothesis, the idea of the Evil Genius and his ideas about the senses that he concludes in fact that he is an existing thing, God does exist and so does knowledge. His arguments, although confusing at times were pretty accurate in deciphering between what is false and what is reality. By the end of the meditation it seems as though he is right back where he began and that in fact he did not get anywhere. He was better off to just believe what he originally believed then to question it and put him through such torture. In essence it was almost as though the only thing that he proved was that his senses were intended to help him figure out the world and everything about it not lead him to discovering the truths of the universe. â€Æ'Bibliography Descartes, Rene. Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy. 4th ed. Indianapolis: Hackett Company, 1998.

Fantasy literature for children Essay

Q (1). Fantasy literature means new ideas and deals with new images, fantasy includes literature, myths, legends, fairy tales, stories of super natural beings with super natural powers, fantasy creates an imaginative world in which the super natural is natural and plays a perfect part essential to the story to complete it, such literature is enjoyed by the children and adults. An example of such literature is L’Engle’s â€Å"A Wrinkle in Time† which can be read by both children and adults. This books heroine is Meg Murry who is an unhappy and clumsy high school student, she with her friend Calvin and her brother Charles undertake an adventurous journey into time and space to rescue her father from the evil force that is attempting to rule over the universe; her greatest drawback is her anger, impatience and lack of self confidence, during the travel and experience she learns to overcome her faults while rescuing her father. The symbols mentioned in this story are (1) The Dark Thing, it is the dark and cold symbol of evil forces that Meg,Calvin and Charles must fight in rescuing her father, the Dark Thing is evil and in the book there is constant battle between good and evil, and good is always successful over evil; (2) The second symbol is the IT, it is the bodiless brain of Camazotz, it controls all the creatures living in that planet, it identifies with the dark thing with its pulsating and revolting rhythm, it is the main body of evil in the planet, it is war of good and evil and love is successful over evil. 3) the book also has good symbols and one is Aunt Beast, she has many tentacles, she is tall and has fur all over, she is from the planet Ixchel and loves to look after travelers as she looks after Meg when during her travel she brushes with the dark thing, Aunt Beast is full of love but she is always in the dark as she has no eyes and has no idea of light or vision she shows her love and emotions by touching with her tentacles. The major theme of the book is Cosmology, other theme is human life and space travel to other planets and constant war of good against evil and ultimately love and goodness are successful. All these symbols show individuality. Meg rescues her brother Charles from IT through the power of love, LEngle makes her characters to travel through space and into other planets and there they communicate with each other without spoken language, the author is trying to show that speech is not the only way to communicate, and the universal theme is the struggle between good and evil, light against darkness, the author also emphasizes inadequacy of words, as sometimes feelings cannot be explained completely with words. All the symbols help Meg to learn the lessons of life as she cannot be aware of everything, she has learned patience, and she has also learned to understand situations as there is explanation for everything even if sometimes we do not understand the world. Q (2) Poetry appeals to the young people in many ways, as it is a way to express the feelings in words, and helps to understand others feelings also, poetry is called literary art, young people read and write poetry as it is away of relaxation, young people like poetry as it can be sung and people love to write songs; there are different kinds and styles of poetry. A study was conducted by Ann Terry in 1974 which shows what type of poetry is liked by children of different ages of elementary school, humorous poems appealed to a large age range of students, they mostly liked poems with musical qualities and disliked poems that they could not understand maturity plays an important part in understanding poetry, four of the poems were narratives, students of all ages did not like this type of poetry, twenty five poems were not popular poems and were not liked, the students liked rhymed poems. The use of poetry in the classroom is very beneficial as reading and learning poems helps the student’s language development, as it evokes emotions it encourages creativity, poetry develops reading habit and helps to increase vocabulary, poetry is a literary art it is a way to relax, it appeals to the young as it can be made into a song and the teenagers love romantic poetry. It is used in the classroom to teach young students to learn, like the alphabet song is used for teaching young students. Q (3) The â€Å"Monkey Island† written by Paula Fox, is a short novel about an eleven years old boy named Clay Garrity, who is left to live on his own as his father looses his job and cannot find another so he simply walks away from his only child and wife, they go to live in a welfare home as his mother is pregnant she disappears one day and Clay is left alone in the streets of New York , soon he finds Buddy and Calvin in a park and they become a family. If Clay leaves the streets he may never find his parents again and if he stays on the streets alone he might not survive as dangers are eminent. According to evaluation criteria it is a short and simple novel, and it is written for all ages as all can enjoy reading it, the book deals with the darkness and dangers of the night the child has to face, as Clay is left alone to survive he reaches a park where homeless people live and this is scornfully called ‘The Monkey Island’. Clay is a sensitive child who is facing harsh realities of life; he has to face hunger, fear and illness, he gets pneumonia and is in the hospital for ten days and then sent to a foster home and is reunited to his mother and baby sister. According to evaluation criteria this novel intrigues the mind of the child and young adults the title also fascinates the child; it is a simple straight, short novel which shows the harsh realities of life faced by the eleven year old. This novel has all the qualities of a good literature for children, in the view of evaluation, as the features of the book help to analyze the pure and clear title of the book that is composed into a quality literature for children and young adults. Q (4) The answer to this question, ‘who should write science books for children’ has an unlimited answer. Basically scientists should write science books for children, writers who write science books for children should be very clear in explaining and they should use accurate facts and figures, complicated writings scare the children as a result the child looses interest and shies away, science should not be complicated, facts must be presented in such a way that the child is encouraged to indulge in furthering reading. Every topic must have pictures to explain. The science books should be based on topics of universal and international appeal, so that it can be read by all the children over the world without clashes of cultures; the authors should write the text that is within the reach of the understanding power of the child; as illustrations immediately attracts the young mind it also sharpens the appetite of the child’s mind to grasp more and read more. The authors suited for writing science books for children should be aware of the needs and intellectual level of the young mind, therefore they should write about things that are interesting to the imagination of the child’s mind, as scientists are best suited to write science books for children they should emphasize and lay stress on meaningful observations, as it helps the student to master his patience through daily observation classes and become a good observer which is the main part of learning science, which also produces a spark of inspirational power to the reader. The science book must inform the reader not only of facts but must explain the beauty of complicated physical life; science books that teach the child to develop scientific language skills are of great help, in helping the child to discover the natural world around us. Authors who write scientific books for children must use easy and graceful language, they must have expertise on descriptive powers of the verbal text, and the design of the book cover is a source of great attraction for the child, writers must depend on illustrations for explanations, the book should be non-fictional and based only on facts that can be understood by the intellectual level of the young readers, accuracy of facts is the main point on which science books can depend so that a child does not have a con fused orientation of science. Authors who write with such accuracy and are careful in presentations and explanations in the books that are for the young mind, are suited to write science books for children, the books must present simple things for children to do alone and in a group as well, then there are things that the child must work on with the help of parents and together they create fun in learning for all ages, the last part of the book must have questions to be answered by the child, so that the child starts thinking about science around us in this world, and the science book should be appealing to the imagination of the child’s mind, the seventh edition of the text is a tool that can help the writers to be updated in research and utilization of technology, these help resources help to make the most of media available with text, as C. D. ROM; and online activities must be encouraged which help greatly in learning. Q (5) Books for children and young adults are banned and censored due to many reason s in some cases it creates awareness to avoid clashes of cultures and beliefs and sentiments of certain society. There are many reasons for banning a book; it depends on the material of contents which are not ‘anti Christian’ or the language used is objectionable and against the religious beliefs, these can be unsuitable for the young mind, books can be banned due to many reasons such as political reason or social grounds, or books are banned when a certain group of people or an influential person considers it to be controversial, immoral or inappropriate, corrupt, vulgar, violent or wicked, generally if the book contains socially unacceptable ideas, such books are banned as these views are made public. These books sometimes contain racial differences such racial slurs, some books contain depressing and alien material which is not good for the development of the young mind; some facts of history show disrespect to adults and elders which is not acceptable to the society, some books confuse fantasy with reality which is very confusing to the young mind, books depicting witchcraft su ch as J. K. Rowling’s book is under challenge as it creates confusion in the mind of the young, as the book mixes reality with fantasy and witchcraft. Parents play a significant part in banning books as they according to their own thinking accept or ban certain books and they also have their own reasons and view points, parents tend to over protect their children and think that reading certain bad books will lead the child to do bad things which may not be the case, some books are banned if the young try to copy certain acts mentioned in the book which are not acceptable in society, such as suicide stories. The text book on ‘through the eyes of a child’ is an introduction to child literature and is an excellent source of literature for children, no person can justify banning a book it simply depends on personal views and reasons. Today the society has changed and many controversial books are now regarded as classics, today people cannot be stopped from thinking, if thinking is allowed, they will speak and if they speak will write and what is written can be printed and published. Society has changed with time and people are becoming liberal minded and have started accepting books that were once banned. Every person has a right to freedom of thought, the young adults and children have the freedom to read and express their opinions and thoughts, people have different thoughts and these thoughts are valuable only to the individual himself but putting ban on such opinions will deprive the human race and society of its freedom rights. Today the society plays a great role in the development of the mental capabilities of the young, as thinking changes the society has also changed and allows the child some freedom, writing books for children and young adults is not an easy task as the writer has to see through the eyes of the child. Writing books for children and young adults is not an easy task as one has to see through the eyes of the child, books are ways to help the young to understand and appreciate their world. Today books are an integral part of young and children and adults alike each in their own capacity. The society has become more open minded, as less content is censored for viewing by the young, it is preferred that children be informed about all issues related to individuals and society itself, this is done so that children be able to have an understanding which would lead them to formulate their own opinion, excess to all information is important so that may be promoted amongst the young.

Reflection on My Vocational Rehabilitation Experience †Internship Essay

Reflection on My Vocational Rehabilitation Experience – Internship Essay Free Online Research Papers Reflection on My Vocational Rehabilitation Experience Internship Essay My overall experience at Vocational Rehabilitation has been one of the best experiences I have gone through with all of my working experiences. For my internship at Vocational Rehabilitation my job duties include the following. I gave information regarding the agency the first two weeks by working at the front desk meeting and greeting clients and answering the phones. While sitting upfront I also took referrals and set appointments for possible new consumers. I also have assisted in the intake process many of times assisting possible consumers filling out applications. I have also assisted many consumers in searching for jobs, creating and revising resumes and job applications. I have also sat in on a few counseling sessions with follow ups and Individual Employment Plans. During my many experiences at Vocational Rehabilitation the employees there have been the friendliest kindest people I have ever worked with. If I ever have any questions they always answer me with a smile. If I need something to do they always have work for me to complete that just is not â€Å"busy work.† I appreciate the work they give me knowing that it will help me understand the agency, and the human services field and my future career. Also, this will enhance my employment opportunities after graduation. Three employees from VR have had life changes so far during my internship and this means that positions have became available. Many employees have asked me to apply but because of my school load this semester I feel that I would not be able to handle them both. I appreciate the Unit Manager talking with me going back to school after graduation to get my masters degree so I am able to become a counselor in my life time. Within Vocational Rehabilitation structure of the staff is as follows: Unit Manager who is over all the employees. Two head counselors who over see the counselors. Counselors in the General unit (General being people with disabilities that are now adults and have not received services in the past.) Counselors in the Substance Abuse Unit. Case technician who helps with the clerical duties of the counselors. All the relationships within the agency are casual and very personal. Everyone who works within VR has a very good relationship with one another and a very personal as well as professional manner. As long as you are doing your job you just have the best time possible at work, whether it’s singing, listening to music, or just laughing with one another. Which make it a more productive environment. During my internship, I have helped the agency achieve their mission by assisting people with a mental or physical impairment that enables them to work in some form or fashion. I have done so by helping our community understands what Vocational Rehabilitation does and helping them decide if they are truly in need of our services or if they even qualify. I have also helped by helping them apply for services by getting them to write down there strengths and weaknesses before coming to the intake process which this allows them to already know what they need help with while finding employment with counselors in the end. I have assisted many people in find employment opportunities and assisting them in the process of what they must do after sending in a resume or application by following up with the employer. After I have told you all the wonderful experiences that I have had at my internship I do have some concerns/problems. The first being the biggest in my mind that when counselors have consumers that are in need of an interpreter for whatever reason language barrier or sign language the counselors do not look at the consumer they spend the whole time looking at the interpreter. This manner is covered on their Ten Commandments of communicating with people with disabilities but I have witnessed this many times while observing counseling sessions. This goes against my personal code of ethics with people in general and it also goes against everything I have ever learned. I have also seen this in many other professional settings with people with disabilities which really bother me because these are the people who are professionals to help people with disabilities and they aren’t even communicating with them in the correct manner. The final concern is something that I had a problem with at my last place of employment and it is that not all people are people who want to do things the right way. For instance during the referral process they have made it so easy to take a referral but there still always a problem with people taking referrals. They don’t ask the questions that are located on the cheat sheet. It only takes about 5 minutes to complete a referral so you might as well do it right the first time and save the agency sometime and money by answering the correct questions. I feel that I am learning, enhancing and achieving my overall career goal while working at Vocational Rehabilitation by assisting people with disabilities improve their lives to own goals in which they have. By doing this I am able to work with two age groups within society which are the young adults graduating high school and the older adults who already been employed and have had some live changes. This allows me to work with variety of different both disabilities and populations. My internship has allowed me to improve my communication skills as well as my skill of being straighter forward with people about what services we provide. I have also been able to improve my skill of problem solving immensely. I am really enjoying my experience at Vocational Rehabilitation and I hope to be employed by them in the future after or before graduation. All the staff there is wonderful and helping people with disabilities find places of employment is the best feeling in the world. Research Papers on Reflection on My Vocational Rehabilitation Experience - Internship EssayArguments for Physician-Assisted Suicide (PAS)Never Been Kicked Out of a Place This NiceHip-Hop is ArtBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfThe Project Managment Office SystemStandardized TestingTwilight of the UAWOpen Architechture a white paperAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever Product

Definition and Examples of Cataphora in English Grammar

Definition and Examples of Cataphora in English Grammar In English grammar, cataphora is the use of a pronoun or other linguistic unit to refer ahead to another word in a sentence (i.e., the referent). Adjective: cataphoric. Also known as  anticipatory anaphora, forward anaphora, cataphoric reference, or forward reference. Cataphora and anaphora are  the two main types of  endophorathat is, reference to an item within the text itself. Cataphora in English Grammar The word that gets its meaning from a subsequent word or phrase is called a cataphor. The subsequent word or phrase is called the antecedent, referent, or head. Anaphora vs. Cataphora Some linguists use anaphora as a generic term for both forward and backward reference. The term forward(s) anaphora is equivalent to cataphora.   Examples and Uses of Cataphora In the following examples, cataphors are in italics and their referents are in bold. Why do we envy him, the bankrupt man? (John Updike, Hugging the Shore, 1984)A few weeks before he died, my father gave me an old cigar box filled with faded letters.In The Pendulum Years, his history of the 1960s, Bernard Levin writes of the collective insanity which seized Britain. (The London Evening Standard, February 8, 1994, quoted by Katie Wales in Personal Pronouns in Present-Day English. Cambridge University Press, 1996)If she were alive today, [Barbara] Tuchman would surely be preparing to pen fresh furious pages tonight, as the president seeks to rally his faltering domestic popularity with summonses of support. (Martin Kettle, If He Resists the Siren Voice of Folly, Blairs Legacy Is Secure. The Guardian, June 25, 2005)You must remember this:A kiss is just a kiss,A sigh is just a sigh. (Herman Hupfeld, As Time Goes By, 1931)This, I now realize, was a very bad ideasuggesting we do whatever Terry Crews wants for the day. (Joel Stein, Crews Control. Time, September 22, 2014) It must have been tough on your mother, not having any children. (Ginger Rogers in 42nd Street, 1933)Too scared to buy before they sell, some homeowners aim for a trade.So I just want to say this to the Congress: An America that buys much more than they sell year in and year out is an America that is facing economic and military disaster. (Congressman James A. Traficant, Congressional RecordHouse, September 25, 1998)After she declared herself broken, betrayed, at bay, really low in another organ yesterday, Im not sure the Diary should even mention poor Bel Mooneys name. (The Guardian, August 9, 1994) Creating Suspense With Cataphora [Cataphora] is in evidence in the next example, which is typical of the opening sentences of books: Students (not unlike yourselves) compelled to buy paperback copies of his novelsnotably the first, Travel Light, though there has lately been some academic interest in his more surreal and existential and perhaps even anarchist second novel, Brother Pigor encountering some essay from When the Saints in a shiny heavy anthology of mid-century literature costing $12.50, imagine that Henry Bech, like thousands less famous than he, is rich. He is not.​[John Updike, Rich in Russia. Bech: A Book, 1970] Here we meet copies of his novels before we know who he is. It is only several lines later that the possessive adjective his links forward to the proper nouns Henry Bech in the text that comes after. As you can see, whereas anaphora refers back, cataphora refers forward. Here, it is a stylistic choice, to keep the reader in suspense as to who is being talked about. More usually, the noun that the pronoun links forward to follows soon after. (Joan Cutting, Pragmatics and Discourse: A Resource Book for Students. Routledge, 2002)Strategic Use of Cataphora [M]ore often than not, protypical cataphora is motivated by a planned or strategic delivery of a referent, such as in news-telling like the following: Listen to thisJohn won a lottery and got a million dollars! Prototypical cataphora thus is rarely associated with problems in lexical retrieval. (Makoto Hayashi and Kyung-Eun Yoon, Demonstratives in Interaction. Fillers, Pauses and Placeholders, ed. by Nino Amiridze, Boyd H. Davis, and Margaret Maclagan. John Benjamins, 2010) Cataphora and Style [S]ome prescriptive grammarians have gone so far as to condemn the practice [of cataphora], for reasons of clarity and, more blandly, good style. So H.W. Fowler declares the pronoun should rarely precede its principal, a view echoed by Gowers . . .. This has led to problems in terminology. The term antecedent, for example, is commonly used to refer to a coreferential NP in an anaphoric relation; there is no equivalent expression for the *postcedent NP, however. But by an odd semantic license, some grammarians, and of different schools of thought, use antecedent in this sense. (Katie Wales, Personal Pronouns in Present-Day English. Cambridge University Press, 1996) EtymologyFrom the Greek, backward carry Pronunciation: ke-TAF-eh-ra

Biography of Nikita Khrushchev

Biography of Nikita Khrushchev Nikita Khrushchev (April 15, 1894- September 11, 1971) was the leader of the Soviet Union during a critical decade of the Cold War. His leadership style and expressive personality came to represent Russians hostility toward the United States in the eyes of the American public. Khrushchevs aggressive stance against the West culminated in the standoff with the United States during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Fast Facts: Nikita Khrushchev Full Name: Nikita Sergeyevich KhrushchevKnown for: Leader of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)Born: April 15, 1894, in Kalinovka, RussiaDied: September 11, 1971 in Moscow, RussiaSpouses Name: Nina Petrovna Khrushchev Early Life Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev was born April 15, 1894, in Kalinovka, a village in southern Russia. His family was poor, and his father at times worked as a miner. By the age of 20 Khrushchev had become a skilled metalworker. He hoped to become an engineer, and married an educated woman who encouraged his ambitions. Following the Russian Revolution in 1917, Khrushchevs plans changed profoundly as he joined the Bolsheviks and began a political career. During the 1920s he rose from obscurity to a position as an apparatchik in the Ukrainian Communist Party. In 1929, Khrushchev moved to Moscow and took a position with the Stalin Industrial Academy. He rose to positions of increasing political power in the Communist Party and was undoubtedly complicit in the violent purges of the Stalin regime. During World War II, Khrushchev became a political commissar in the Red Army. Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, Khrushchev worked at rebuilding Ukraine, which had been devastated during the war. He began to gain attention, even to observers in the West. In 1947 The New York Times published an essay by journalist Harrison Salisbury headlined The 14 Men Who Run Russia. It contained a passage on Khrushchev, which noted that his current job was to bring the Ukraine fully into the Soviet fold and that, in order to do so, he was carrying out a violent purge. In 1949, Stalin brought Khrushchev back to Moscow. Khrushchev became involved in the political intrigue within the Kremlin which coincided with the Soviet dictators failing health. Rise to Power Following Stalins death on March 5, 1953, Khrushchev began his own rise to the top of the Soviet power structure. To outside observers, he was not viewed as a favorite. The New York Times published a front-page article following Stalins death citing four men expected to succeed the Soviet leader. Georgy Malenkov was presumed to be the next Soviet leader. Khrushchev was mentioned as one of about a dozen figures believed to hold power within the Kremlin. In the years immediately following Stalins death, Khrushchev managed to outmaneuver his rivals, including notable figures such as Malenkov and Vyacheslav Molotov. By 1955, he had consolidated his own power and was essentially leading the Soviet Union. Khrushchev chose not to become another Stalin, and actively encouraged the process of de-Stalinization that followed the dictators death. The role of the secret police was curtailed. Khrushchev was involved in the plot which ousted the feared head of the secret police, Lavrenti Beria (who was tried and shot). The terror of the Stalin years was denounced, with Khrushchev evading his own responsibility for purges. In the realm of foreign affairs, Khrushchev aggressively challenged the United States and its allies. In a famous outburst aimed at Western ambassadors in Poland in 1956, Khrushchev said the Soviets would not have to resort to war to defeat its adversaries. In a quote that became legendary, Khrushchev bellowed, Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. We will bury you. On the World Stage As Khrushchev enacted his reforms within the Soviet Union, the Cold War defined the era internationally. The United States, led by World War II hero President Dwight Eisenhower, sought to contain what was viewed as Russian communist aggression in trouble spots around the world. In July 1959, a relative thaw in Soviet-American relations occurred when an American trade fair opened in Moscow. Vice president Richard Nixon traveled to Moscow and had a confrontation with Khrushchev that seemed to define the tensions between the superpowers. The two men, standing next to a display of kitchen appliances, debated the relative virtues of communism and capitalism. The rhetoric was tough, but news reports noted that no one lost their temper. The public argument became instantly famous as The Kitchen Debate, and was reported as a tough discussion between determined adversaries. Americans got an idea of Khrushchevs stubborn nature. A few months later, in September 1959, Khrushchev accepted an invitation to visit the United States. He stopped in Washington, D.C., before traveling to New York City, where he addressed the United Nations. He then flew to Los Angeles, where the trip seemed to veer out of control. After expressing abrupt greetings to local officials who welcomed him, he was taken to a movie studio. With Frank Sinatra acting as the master of ceremonies, dancers from the film Can Can performed for him. The mood turned bitter, however, when Khrushchev was informed that he would not be allowed to visit Disneyland. The official reason was that local police couldnt guarantee Khrushchevs safety on the long drive to the amusement park. The Soviet leader, who was not used to being told where he could go, erupted in anger. At one point he bellowed, according to news reports, Is there an epidemic of cholera there or something? Or have gangsters taken control of the place that can destroy me? At one appearance in Los Angeles, the mayor of Los Angeles, made reference to Khrushchevs famous we will bury you remark from three years earlier. Khrushchev felt he had been insulted, and threatened to return immediately to Russia. In Iowa, Khrushchev enjoyed his first hot dog. Getty Images   Khrushchev took a train northward to San Francisco, and the trip turned happier. He praised the city and engaged in friendly banter with local officials. He then flew to Des Moines, Iowa, where he toured American farms and happily posed for the cameras. He then visited Pittsburgh, where he debated with American labor leaders. After returning to Washington, he visited Camp David for meetings with President Eisenhower. At one point, Eisenhower and Khrushchev visited the presidents farm in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Khrushchevs tour of America was a media sensation. A photo of Khrushchev visiting an Iowa farm, smiling broadly as he waved an ear of corn, appeared on the cover of LIFE magazine. An essay in the issue explained that Khrushchev, despite appearing friendly at times during his trip, was a difficult and unyielding adversary. The meetings with Eisenhower had not gone very well. The following year, Khrushchev returned to New York to appear at the United Nations. In an incident that became legendary, he disrupted the proceedings of the General Assembly. During a speech by a diplomat from the Philippines, which Khrushchev took as insulting to the Soviet Union, he removed his shoe and began rhythmically banging it against his desktop. To Khrushchev, the incident with the shoe was essentially playful. Yet it was portrayed as front-page news that seemed to illuminate Khrushchevs unpredictable and threatening nature. Cuban Missile Crisis Serious conflicts with the United States followed. In May 1960, an American U2 spy plane was shot down over Soviet territory and the pilot was captured. The incident provoked a crisis, as President Eisenhower and allied leaders had been planning for a scheduled summit meeting with Khrushchev. The summit occurred, but it went badly. Khrushchev accused the United States of aggression against the Soviet Union. The meeting essentially collapsed with nothing accomplished. (The Americans and Soviets eventually made a deal to swap the U2 planes pilot for an imprisoned Russian spy in America, Rudolf Abel.) The early months of the Kennedy administration were marked by accelerated tensions with Khrushchev. The failed Bay of Pigs Invasion created problems, and a June 1961 summit between Kennedy and Khrushchev in Vienna was difficult and produced no real progress. President Kennedy and Khrushchev at their Vienna summit.   Getty Images In October 1962, Khrushchev and Kennedy became forever linked in history as the world suddenly seemed to be on the brink of nuclear war. A CIA spy plane over Cuba had taken photographs which showed launch facilities for nuclear missiles. The threat to Americas national security was profound. The missiles, if launched, could strike American cities with virtually no warning. The crisis simmered for two weeks, with the public becoming aware of the threat of war when President Kennedy gave a televised speech on October 22, 1962. Negotiations with the Soviet Union eventually helped defuse the crisis, and the Russians ultimately removed the missiles from Cuba. In the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Khrushchevs role in the Soviet power structure began to decline. His efforts to move on from the dark years of Stalins brutal dictatorship were generally admired, but his domestic policies were often seen as disorganized. In the realm of international affairs, rivals in the Kremlin viewed him as erratic. Fall From Power and Death In 1964 Khrushchev was essentially deposed. In a Kremlin power play, he was stripped of his power and forced to go into retirement. Khrushchev lived a comfortable retired life in a house outside Moscow, but his name was purposely forgotten. In secret, he worked on a memoir, a copy of which was smuggled out to the West. Soviet officials denounced the memoir as a forgery. It is considered an unreliable narration of events, yet it is believed to be Khrushchevs own work. On September 11, 1971, Khrushchev died four days after suffering a heart attack. Though he died in a Kremlin hospital, his front-page obituary in The New York Times noted that the Soviet government had not issued an official statement on his passing. In the countries he had delighted in antagonizing, Khrushchevs death was treated as major news. However, in the Soviet Union, it was largely ignored. The New York Times reported that a small item in Pravda, the official government newspaper, reported his death, but avoided any praise of the man who had dominated Soviet life for a decade. Sources: Khrushchev, Nikita. UXL Encyclopedia of World Biography, edited by Laura B. Tyle, vol. 6, UXL, 2003, pp. 1083-1086. Gale Virtual Reference Library.Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev. Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., vol. 8, Gale, 2004, pp. 539-540. Gale Virtual Reference Library.Taubman, William. Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich. Encyclopedia of Russian History, edited by James R. Millar, vol. 2, Macmillan Reference USA, 2004, pp. 745-749. Gale Virtual Reference Library.

Stalin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Stalin - Essay Example The paper shows that Solzhenitsyn writes that on the hand with hatred to Ukrainians, Chechen people, Baltic nations, and some small ethnicities, which suffered exile to Siberia or Cold prairies of Kazakhstan Stalin, agreed that only Russians and Jews remained to be faithful to him. To my point of view, it’s not true and can be regarded as a subjective point of view of the author. Stalin hated Jews, during his power Jews were proclaimed to be â€Å"fifth column† and a number of Jews suffered especially in after war years, a number of Bolsheviks elite representatives and army generals were Jews and nearly all of them suffered in the years of great purges. Making a conclusion it's important to outline that portrait of Stalin given by Solzhenitsyn in the novel The first circle is very accurate and realistic. If the majority of western authors gave an only historical evaluation to Stalin and Edward Radzinsky sometimes gives illogical arguments for justification of Stalin’s cruelty, then Alexander Solzhenitsyn presents him as an aging tyrant who created an empire based on terror and blood and who understands that it will break immediately after his death. It was his main purpose to show his cruelty, paranoia power and helplessness at the same moment. He was considered to be country’s leader, which stood only on the power of terror. It wasn’t accepted by his former ally from Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito, and he was mad. The only pleasure Stalin got on his birthday was the murder of Tito’s friend and another Yugoslavian communist Traicho Kostov.

How is internationalisation transforming the nature of the Australian Essay

How is internationalisation transforming the nature of the Australian screen industry and what tensions does this create for local content and the representation of national identity - Essay Example Nevertheless, the year 1968 saw the revival of Australian cinema, in a quest to nationalize its content to address local and national interests. Accordingly, by the 1980s, Australian cinema produced respectable and morally cultivated films that fit the interests of the middle class viewers, as well as middle-aged ones (Ryan, 2009; pp. 45). The Australian government had put in place several regulations to ensure that the film content adhered to the preservation of Australian identity, culture, and character. Australian cinema was national in every sense, since it produced images that reflected the everyday life of the Australian people, the challenges they faced and their aspirations (Kindem, 62, 2000). The images in Australian film showed the Australian landscape and resources, while all the actors were of Australian origin, thus, enhancing the localization of Australian cinema. For a long time, Sydney has been the center of film production in Australia as the New South Wales (NSW) became the leading national producer of audio-visual films. This dominance by NSW and Sidney in Australian film production was a result of heavy federal funding and the presence of many institutions for training in cinematography. In spite of this growth in nationalized films, the Australian cinema was in a dilemma because the cultural and goals were in conflict with the goals of global economy. Evidently, the global economy affects each and every sector of the society, thus, the Australian film industry had little choice but to shift towards the goals of the global economy. During the twentieth century, Australia was also struggling with exhibition venues for its content, especially after the disintegration of the European movie production after World War II. Essentially, this is what made the Australian film industry form an alliance with the producers in Hollywood, leading

Right to Refuse Treatment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Right to Refuse Treatment - Research Paper Example The right to refuse treatment is now well established for some kinds of patients, especially in cases of psychiatric treatment. Different states have adopted various procedures of addressing the right to refuse treatment and for the overriding of this refusal. Oregon's administrative procedure for override depends on an evaluation by an independent examining psychiatrist. Every state has laws governing the right to refuse medical treatment and advance directives about this right. It is essential for nurses to ensure that they are familiar with the legislations of their state. There is a complex relationship between the right to refuse treatment and the right to treatment. The Right to refuse treatment includes the right to refuse involuntary hospitalization. (Godard, Bloom, Williams, and Faulkner, 1998) More often than not, Nurses find themselves in the front line when the situation arises to deal with patients that refuse medication or treatment. Evidently, a voluntary patient has the right to refuse treatment and must not be treated against his or her consent, with the exception being in situations in which the patient becomes actively to others or to himself. The right to refuse treatment is closely related to the rights of the Mentally Disabled Persons, and every Nurse is required to be familiar with the guidelines laid down in the laws of the State in which they practice, so that they can administer medications properly to committed patients as well involuntary patients. Within the last 30 years, there has been a shift in opinion concerning patients’ right to make their own medical treatment decisions.

Diglossia Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Diglossia - Research Paper Example Keywords: Arabic, diglossia, Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic, Iraqi/Syrian dialect Arabic is among the diglossic languages of the world because two formal varieties exist in concurrent use. These varieties are Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA). Both are referred to as al-lugha al-fusha or simply fusha for short, the latter part being pronounced as al-fuS-Ha and meaning ‘pure’ or ‘most eloquent’. Badawi however, distinguishes between al-fusha al-turath for CA and al-fusha al-‘asr for MSA (Ryding, 2005: 4). This distinction reflects the historical and cultural differences as CA pertains to Arab heritage (al-turath) and MSA pertains to the modern era (al-‘asr). Vincent Monteil (1960) thus regarded MSA as a modern development of the old classical form of CA. There are also colloquial forms and various dialects but the main distinction is drawn between the two aforementioned literary forms. Many Arabs and indeed Muslims r egard CA as the pure form, as it is the form used in the Holy Quran and the form used in heaven, and therefore regard all other varieties as inferior. The syntax and morphology of CA have thus remained intact but the lexicon present in MSA is changed. This classical form is the same globally although it has few fluent speakers whereas the other varieties are distinct enough â€Å"so as to impede mutual intelligibility† (Tan, 1999: 264). Nonetheless, the spoken varieties tend to be of greater practical benefit in the present age, as shown in a study by Palmer (2008). On the other hand, MSA, which functions as a global lingua franca, is used by the media and â€Å"stirs pan-Arab nationalistic feelings in the Arab world† (Palmer, 2008: 93). Above all, it also allows for greater intelligibility of the Holy Quran from being closer to CA and is the more respected and educated variety. It functions as educated Arabic speech because it is â€Å"characterized by general intell igibility among great regional and stylistic diversity† (Mitchell, 1986). Essentially therefore, despite a multiplicity of forms and dialects, Arabic is a prime example of diglossia. The term ‘diglossia’ was first used by the Greeks to describe two different varieties of their language, namely Dhimotiki and Katharevousa. Diglossia was more recently examined by Charles Ferguson (1959) in his book ‘Diglossia’ in which three other diglossic languages were identified including Arabic. It â€Å"describes any stable linguistic situation, in which there exists a strict functional differentiation between a (socially) ‘L(ow)-variety’ and a distinct ‘H(igh)-variety’† (Bussmann, 2006: 345). The latter is differentiated from the former by being more grammatically complex, standardised and formal. Gumperz (1964) considered linguistic societies as diglossic if functionally distinct varieties were found, but did not regard them as bi lingual because of their close relationship whereas Fishman (1967) related diglossia closely to bilingualism. Other scholars who have studied diglossia include Kremnitz (1987) and Willemyns & Bister (1989). As far as the various dialects of Arabic are concerned, the present day dialects can be roughly divided according to four geographical regions, which are: (1) Arabian Peninsula and the Persian Gulf, (2) Levantine, (3)

Presentation Essentials Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Presentation Essentials - Essay Example To effectively achieve this, it is important for the speaker to believe in his/her message so that the listeners are convinced of what is being said. During the message, the speaker’s state of mind is translated to the viewers. It’s also important that the speaker possesses â€Å"personal credibility† to earn the viewers respect. The speaker’s personality affects the situation and the audience directly. His/her enthusiasm, proficiency, predispositions and deliverance aside influencing the environment also have a direct effect on the viewers’ percussion of the message. The audience element refers to the people who will view the presentation delivered by the speaker. The speaker must consider the audience element relevant in order to avoid the receivers of the massage being disconnected from the message. There must exist an effective relationship between the speaker and the audience, which is successfully created by conducting research about the audience. This research should consider the audiences motivating factors, biases and enjoyments. Depending on the variation in each audience, the speaker must adjust the message style too enable listeners to relate to the message effectively (Lucas, 2009). Diverse approaches require to be taken depending on the audience the message is being delivered to. The audience at an informative speech is much more likely to have an open mind and ready to learn attitude whereas that at a persuasive presentation might previously have their own outlook on the topic. This might make it harder for the presenter to gain their trust. The situation is the grounds on which the speaker is delivering the presentation .it is vital since along with the presentation, the place to have it and how to set up the most effective situation from the speaker. Mr. Smith begins his presentation by introducing himself and what the presentation is all about He explains why the topic he’s about

Symbolism in Young Goodman Brown Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Symbolism in Young Goodman Brown - Essay Example Young Goodman Brown is a satire on Puritanism and what Hawthorne perceives to be its hypocrisies. Hawthorne employs an abundance of symbolisms all throughout the narrative to create an atmosphere of evil deeply lurking behind the faces of the characters in the story behind their benevolent faà §ade. The story revolves around a young man named Goodman Brown and one particular night in his life which would forever change his life and his perception of the people and the world around him. That one night is the night when Goodman Brown is to finally determine whether he would finally succumb to the temptation of becoming a part of a witches’ coven in Salem. As he walks through the forest to the predetermined meeting place where he would take his official vow to the group, he sees a lot of things which makes him vacillate with his decision. He sees the people he often sees in the church, people who are known for their piety, wisdom and kindness, people who serve in the high positions of the government. He sees his old catechism teacher and spiritual counselor, the Salem’s minister, Deacon Gookin, other pious people and even his young wife, Faith in the company of the devil. This last revelation is the last straw that broke the camel’s back, so to speak. Brown de cides to embrace evil having lost the wife he wants to be good for. In the rite held at the unholy altar, as Satan is about to put the mark of baptism on his and his wife’s heads, Brown makes his last stand and cries out in protest and urges his wife to resist the devil. He suddenly finds himself alone and back in the middle of the forest. Goodman Brown lives the rest of his life a miserable man, still wondering whether what he went through was real or merely a dream. Nevertheless, he remains suspicious of all the people around him and even of his wife and lives his life in isolation from the people in his

Presentation Essentials Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Presentation Essentials - Essay Example To effectively achieve this, it is important for the speaker to believe in his/her message so that the listeners are convinced of what is being said. During the message, the speaker’s state of mind is translated to the viewers. It’s also important that the speaker possesses â€Å"personal credibility† to earn the viewers respect. The speaker’s personality affects the situation and the audience directly. His/her enthusiasm, proficiency, predispositions and deliverance aside influencing the environment also have a direct effect on the viewers’ percussion of the message. The audience element refers to the people who will view the presentation delivered by the speaker. The speaker must consider the audience element relevant in order to avoid the receivers of the massage being disconnected from the message. There must exist an effective relationship between the speaker and the audience, which is successfully created by conducting research about the audience. This research should consider the audiences motivating factors, biases and enjoyments. Depending on the variation in each audience, the speaker must adjust the message style too enable listeners to relate to the message effectively (Lucas, 2009). Diverse approaches require to be taken depending on the audience the message is being delivered to. The audience at an informative speech is much more likely to have an open mind and ready to learn attitude whereas that at a persuasive presentation might previously have their own outlook on the topic. This might make it harder for the presenter to gain their trust. The situation is the grounds on which the speaker is delivering the presentation .it is vital since along with the presentation, the place to have it and how to set up the most effective situation from the speaker. Mr. Smith begins his presentation by introducing himself and what the presentation is all about He explains why the topic he’s about

United Nation Organization Essay Example for Free

United Nation Organization Essay United Nations Organisation was established after World War II with a motto to maintain world peace. And this in fact is known to every one of us in general. But the question is, was this really successful in doing the same i.e., maintaining the peace in every part of the world or are there any failures? Perhaps this is also one of the most important area to assess. Successes and Failures of the United Nations since its establishment, i believe is a very essential topic to be focused. Here are some of the positive roles played by UN and its failures. Successes of the United Nations The First and foremost it has prevented the occurrence of any further world wars. Instrumental in the maintenance of international balance of power. It played a Significant role in disarming the world and making it nuclear free. Various treaty negotiations like Partial Test Ban Treaty and Nuclear non-proliferation treaty have been signed under UN. Demise of colonialism and imperialism on one hand and apartheid on the other had UN sanctions behind them. UN Acted as vanguard for the protection of human rights of the people of the world, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948. Despite crippled by Bretton Woods Institutions, UN has played limited but effective role on economic matters. Supported the North-South dialogue and aspired for emergence of new international economic order. Agencies of United Nations like WHO, UNICFF, UNESCO have keenly participated in the transformation of the international social sector. Peace keeping operations, peaceful resolution of disputes and refugee concerns had always been on the list of core issues. Since 1945, the UN has been credited with negotiating 172 peaceful settlements that have ended regional conflicts. The world body was also instrumental in institutionalization of international laws and world legal frame work. Passage of various conventions and declarations on child, women, climate, etc, highlights the extra-political affairs of the otherwise political world body. It has successfully controlled the situation in Serbia, Yugoslavia and Balkan areas. A number of peace missions in Africa has done reasonably well to control the situation. Failures of the United Nations: UN opinion on Hungary and Czechoslovakia were ignored by the erstwhile Soviet Union in 1950s. Israel had been taking unilateral action through decades in its geographical vicinity and nothing substantial has come out even by September 2010. No emphatic role in crisis of worst kinds like the Cuban Missile Crisis, Vietnam crisis etc. UN was nowhere in the picture when the NATO rained bombs over former Yugoslavia. Uni-polarity and unilateralism has shaken the relevance of the world body. Unilateral action in Iraq was bereft of UN sanction. Failed to generate a universal consensus to protect the deteriorating world climate, even at Copenhagen in 2009. Number of nuclear powers in the world has kept on increasing. UN Could not control the horizontal expansion and proliferation of weapons and arms. Financial dependence on the industrialized nations has at times deviated UN from neutrality and impartiality. The world body has failed to reflect the democratic aspiration of the world. Without being democratic itself, it talks of democratization of the world. Aids is crossing regions and boundaries both in spread and intensity. Domestic situation of near anarchy in Iraq and many regions of Afghanistan, despite on active UN. The US President scheme of withdrawal has not able to bring any specific solutions in the region. In fact, the situation has been further aggravated. The UN totally exposed in the case of US invasion on Iraq in name for the search weapon of mass destruction. US has withdrawn its combat forces but the law and order and mutual distrust has worsened and at this juncture UN seems to be clueless.

Doctrine of Separation of Power Analysis

Doctrine of Separation of Power Analysis Introduction The doctrine of separation of powers is not a legal principle, but a political theory.[1] The separation of powers concerns the division of State power as between the executive, the legislature and judiciary.[2] Article 16 of the French Declaration of the Rights of man (1789) states, that ‘’a society where rights are not secured or the separation of powers established has no constitution’’.[3] The most important aspect of the separation of powers is the way in which the organs of State act to restrain each other and prevent the other institutions from exceeding their powers. There is a general belief that in all societies that there is a natural tendency for an individual to monopolise power. The doctrine of separation of powers attempts to combat this by providing mechanisms to make it difficult for any single power group to dominate and to ensure that government action requires the cooperation of different groups, each of which helps to keep the others within bounds.[4] One of the functions of government is to protect the rights of individuals, however, historically; governments have been the major violators of these rights that they are meant to protect. The concept of separation of powers is one of a number of measures that have been derived to reduce the likelihood of abuse of power by the government and the violation of individual rights.[5] If power is concentrated in a single group, they would have unlimited power and they would do as it pleases them. The French writer Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron Montesquieu is the person, most often associated with the doctrine of separation of power. Writing in 1748, the French jurist, Montesquieu argued that, there can be no liberty and there would be no end of everything if the legislative, executive and judicial powers of government were to be exercised by the same person or authority.[6] The English political philosopher, John Locke had earlier expressed similar sentiments and he wrote in 1690, ‘’it may be too great a temptation to human frailty†¦for the same person to have the power of making laws, to have also in their hands the power to execute them, whereby they may exempt themselves from the obedience to the laws they make, and suit the law both in its making and execution, to their own private advantage.[7] The scope of the doctrine of separation of power is not caste in iron. The doctrine has generated a lot of debate and is capable of different interpretations. Statements about the existence and importance of separation of powers in the United Kingdom should be treated with caution.[8] This essay will look at the doctrine of separation of power and if the doctrine operates in a satisfactory fashion in the United Kingdom today. I will first look at the origin of the doctrine of separation of powers. I will then look at doctrine of separation of powers in the U.K Origin of separation of powers. The doctrine of separation of powers includes a proposition about the functions of government, and discussions of the forms and functions of government may be traced back to ancient Greece.[9] John Locke recommended that the legislative and executive functions should be placed in separate hand, for the sake of efficiency as well as for the protection of liberty. His classification of functions was in to legislative the executive, and the federative.[10] Collin Munro, professor of constitutional law at University of Edinburgh wrote that , ‘’another related term, which has as long a history in political thought, is the problem of ensuring that the exercise of governmental power, if it is necessary for the promotion of a society’s values, may nonetheless be subject to limits so that it does not itself destroy those values. That is the principle of constitutionalism, which became central to western democratic tradition government’’.[11] Another theory, which was first, developed in ancient Greece and Rome was the theory of mixed governments, which proposed that the major interests in society must be allowed to participate jointly in government, so preventing any one interest from being able to dominate entirely. The doctrine, just like the doctrine of separation of powers was aimed at avoiding absolutism by preventing a monopoly of power.[12] Viscount Bolingbroke presented a clear delineation of the functions of the different arms of government. He wrote, ‘’A king of Great Britain is that supreme magistrate, who has a negative voice in the legislature. He is entrusted with the executive, and several other powers and privileges, which we call prerogative, are annexed to this trust. The two houses of parliament have their rights and privileges, some of which are common to both, others particular to each other†¦the supreme judicature resides in the Lords. The Commons are the grand inquest of the nation; and to them it belongs to judge of national expenses, and to give supplies accordingly’’. [13] Bolingbroke, had the vision to see that, ‘’in a constitution like ours, the safety of the whole depends on the balance of the parts’’.[14] In Bolingbrook’s writings, he proposed that that no arm of government should have monopoly of power, that was the only way, the rights, and liberty of individuals could be protected. Montesquieu took on the constitution that Bolingbroke described as his model and explicitly restated the doctrine of separation of powers. The Separation of Powers in the UK The separation of powers has been endorsed by contemporary UK judges, e.g. Lord Templeman in M v. Home Office (1993) 3 ALL ER 537.[15] Lord Diplock in a case concerning an industrial dispute stated, ‘’At a time when more and more cases involve the application of legislation which gives effect to polices that are the subject of bitter public and parliamentary controversy, it cannot be too strongly emphasised that the British constitution, though largely unwritten, is firmly based on the separation of power: parliament makes the laws, the judiciary interpret them’’.[16] Sir John Donaldson MR once remarked, ‘’Although the United Kingdom has no written constitution, it is †¦one of the highest importance that the legislature and the judicature are separate and independent of one another, subject to certain ultimate rights of Parliament over the judicature which are immaterial present purposes. It therefore behoves the courts to be ever sensitive to the paramount need to refrain from trespassing on the province of Parliament†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢.[17] Shortly afterwards, Lord Scarman referred to the doctrine in Re: Nottinghamshire, in explaining why the courts should be slow to intervene over the exercise of an executive power which had been subject to the specific approval of the House of Commons.[18] More recently in the case of M v Home-Office, Lord Templeman remarked that , Parliament makes the law, the executive carry the law in to effect and the judiciary enforce the law’’.[19] Other judges have recognised it as applying at least between the legislature and the judiciary, e.g. Lords Nicholas and Hope in Wilson v First County Trust (2003) 4 All ER 97.[20] A strict separation of powers in the United Kingdom is impossible, because in strict constitutional theory the three functions of government are derived from the Crown.[21] The Crown has always been an element in the exercise of all three kinds of powers, namely the executive, legislature and judiciary.[22] There is not, and never has been, a strict separation of powers in the English constitution in the sense that the legislative, executive and judicial powers are assigned respectively to different organs, nor have checks and balances between them been devised as a result of theoretical analysis.[23] There is clear overlap between the three organs of government in the United Kingdom both in terms of personnel and between functions. The principal overlaps in personnel are that the majority of government ministers will be members of the House of Commons, while other ministers will have seat in the House of Lords. The Lord Chancellor presided over the House of Lords prior to the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 in its legislative capacity. He was also the head of the judiciary and a cabinet minister. However, by virtue of Part 2 of the Act, the Lord Chancellor ceases to be a member of the judiciary and loses the judicial functions traditionally associated with the office. Future Lord Chancellors may be drawn from either the House of Lords or the House of Commons.[24] The principal overlap in functions are that government ministers direct the activities of central government departments and, as it has been alleged, through their majority in the House of Commons exert a controlling influence over its timetable, business and legislative output.[25] The Law Lords exercise both judicial and legislative functions, although this dual rate will end when the Supreme Court is established. The Lord Chancellor will continue to be involved in the process of judicial appointment, notwithstanding that his judicial functions were removed by the 2005 Act.[26] The Home Secretary exercises the prerogative of mercy, and the Attorney General may enter a nolle prosequi to a prosecution on indictment.[27] In R. v Home Secretary ex. p Fire Brigades Union[28], Lord Mustill referred to the ‘peculiarly British conception of the separation of powers that Parliament, the executive and the courts each have their distinct and largely exclusive domain.’[29] Most writers on constitutional law unanimously agree that separation of powers is not a feature of the British Constitution. W.A Robson, likened Montesquieu’s doctrine to ‘a rickety chariot’ and claimed that, ‘’ †¦the division of powers enunciated in this theory, and their allocation to separate branches of the government has at no period of history borne a close relation to the actual grouping of authority under the system of government obtaining in England’’.[30] In Halsbury’s Laws of England, Sir William Holdsworth denied that the doctrine of separation of powers had ever ‘to any great extent corresponded with the facts of England’.[31] S.A de Smith equa lly towed the line of other writers, arguing that the doctrine has no place in the British constitution. In his textbook on Constitutional and Administration law, he wrote, ‘’No writer of repute would claim that it is a central feature of the modern British constitution’’.[32] The doctrine of separation of power is susceptible to a variety of meanings. There appears to be a consensus amongst academics that , the doctrine is not a central feature of British constitution and that a strict separation of powers is impossible in the United Kingdom, however some leading judges seem to have an opposite view. What the judges seem to have in mind is a version of the doctrine, which would require that the persons who exercise one kind of governmental function should not also exercise another.[33] Conclusion There is no absolute separation of powers in the United Kingdom. The Crown has always been a part in the exercise of all three kinds of powers, namely the executive, legislature and judiciary. There has never has been, a strict separation of powers in the English constitution in the sense that the legislative, executive and judicial powers are assigned respectively to different organs. There is clear overlap between the three organs of government in the United Kingdom both in terms of personnel and their functions. There are substantial and not merely trivial links between the legislature and the executive, however, this does not mean that the separation of powers doctrine has been without effect.[34] The doctrine of separation of powers, no doubt has shaped our constitutional arrangements and thinking, and continues to do so.[35] The doctrine is not absolute in the United Kingdom; nevertheless, it should not be dismissed lightly. Bibliography Alder, J (2005) Constitutional and Administrative Law, 5th Edition, Palgrave Macmillan, London Barnett, H (2006) Constitutional and Administrative Law, 6th Edition, Routledge-Cavendish, Oxon Bradley, A.W Ewing, K.D (2007) Constitutional and Administrative Law, 14th Edition, Pearson, Harlow. Carroll, A (2007) Constitutional and Administrative Law, 4th Edition, Pearson, Harlow Marston, J Ward, R (1997) Cases Commentary on Constitutional and Administrative Law, 4h Edition, Pitman, London Munro, C.R (2005) Studies in Constitutional Law, 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford Parpworth, N (2006) Constitutional and Administrative Law, 4th Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford Phillips, O.H Jackson (2001) Constitutional and Administrative Law, 8th Edition, Sweet Maxwell, London Pollard, D, Parpworth N, Hughes, D (2001) Constitutional and Administrative Law, 3rd Edition, Butterworths, London Thompson, B (1997) Constitutional and Administrative Law, 3rd Edition, Blackstone, London. 1 Footnotes [1] Munro, C. R (2005) p.295 [2] Martson, J Ward, R (1997) p.219 [3] Alder, J (2005)p.145 [4] Alder, J (2005)p.145 [5] Landauer, J Rowlands, J (2001) [6] L’Espirit des Lois, 1748 citied in Carroll (2007) p.37 [7] Second Treatise of Civil Government, 1690, citied in Carroll (2007) p.37 [8] Marstson, J Ward, R (ibid) p.219 [9] Munro, C. R (2005) p.295artso [10]Munro, C.R (ibid) p.298 [11] Munro, C. R (ibid) p.296 [12] Munro, C. R (ibid) p.296 [13] Remarks on the History of England (1743) p.84 cited in Munro, C. R (ibid) p.299 [14] the Craftsman 27 June 1730 cited in Munro, C. R (ibid) p.298 [15] Alder, J (2005)p.150 [16] Duport Steels Ltd v Sirs (1980) 1 ALL ER 529 at p.541 [17] R v HM Treasury, ex p Smedley (1985) QB 657 at p.666 quoted in Munro, C. R (ibid) p.306 [18] (1986) AC 240 citied in Munro, C. R (ibid) p.307 [19] (1994)1AC 377 at 396 [20] Alder, J (2005)p.150 [21] Marstson, J Ward, R (ibid) p.219 [22] Jackson Leopold (2001)p.26 [23] Jackson Leopold (2001)p.26 [24] Carroll (ibid) p.38-43 [25] Carroll (ibid) p.39 [26] Carroll (ibid) p.39 [27] Jackson Leopold (2001)p.26 [28] (1995) 2 AC 513 [29] (1995) 2 AC 513 at p.567 [30] W.A Robson (1951) p.16 cited in Munro, C. R (ibid) p.304 [31] Halsbury’s Law of England (1932) p.385 Munro, C. R (ibid) p.304 [32] SA de Smith R Brazier (1998)p.18 citied in Munro, C. R (ibid) p.305 [33] Munro, C. R (ibid) p.307 [34] Munro, C. R (ibid) p.329 [35] Munro, C. R (ibid) p.332